English Journal Essay Example for Free

English Journal Essay â€Å"Within the diamond haze of the beach something dark was fumbling along. Ralph saw it first and watched till the intentness of his gaze drew all eyes that way. Then the creature stepped from mirage on to clear sand, and they saw that the darkness was not all shadow but mostly clothing. The creature was a party of boys, marching approximately in step in two parallel lines and dressed in strangely eccentric clothing. (Golding 1954, Ch. 1, p. 19) | This analysis explores the literary feature characterization. In this passage of the novel Golding describes the setting as â€Å"the diamond haze of the beach† to make the reader experience darkness and mystery, as if the reader is actually there. But not just the setting is important in this passage. The author’s choice of words to characterize the choir boys is impeccable. In this quotation the readers see the mysterious â€Å"creature† coming closer and closer to the two boys, Ralph and Piggy. Golding uses imagery to make the reader experience this spooky event. It is evident in the phrase â€Å"Then the creature stepped from mirage on to clear sand, and they saw that the darkness was not all shadow but mostly clothing. † By using the noun â€Å"creature†, Golding instills a scary, horrifying appearance to the group of boys. Also, he uses the word â€Å"mirage† to provide the reader with a mysterious, almost horror-like feeling as the group comes closer and closer. These nouns signify mysteriousness and darkness, providing the readers with a spooky, eerie atmosphere which helps us understand that the group of boys seem dangerous. This passage is taken from the author’s point-of-view and it makes a great impact on the reader. | â€Å"That’s enough! † said Ralph sharply, and snatched back the conch. â€Å"If you didn’t you didn’t. â€Å"-then you come up here an’ pinch my specs-† Jack turned on him. â€Å"You shut up! †(Golding 1954, Ch. 2, p. 46)| This analysis explores the literary feature imagery. In this dialogue of the novel Golding shows an argument between Ralph, the leader, and the other boys. The author uses words and phrases like †You shut up! † and â€Å"That’s enough! † to stress the harshness and seriousness of the situation to the reader. By using â€Å"enough! † the author deeply signifies the disturbance and frustration that Ralph is experiencing as pack leader. Jack is also portrayed as rude and bossy by using the phrase â€Å"You shut up! † This makes the reader feel a scuffle going on between the two, as if two factions are ready to be formed. This short passage shapes the theme â€Å"Inherent evil within humanity† as a whole by giving the reader a rude argument scene to show that there is inherent evil within humanity. | â€Å"Don’t you want to be rescued? All you can talk about is pig, pig, pig! â€Å"But we want meat! † â€Å"And I work all day with nothing but Simon and you come back and don’t even notice the huts! † (Golding 1954, Ch. 3, p. 54) | This analysis explores the literary feature characterization. In this passage of the novel Golding shows Ralph gives a rap on the knuckles to all those who didn’t participate in the hard-working day. By using the words â€Å"don’t even notice†, Golding wants the reader to experience the anger that Ralph has for these children. He states that he â€Å"work all day with nothing but Simon†, which means no child wants to do the hard work, except for those who actually are optimistic and think they have chance to leave this island. The other children’s egoistic behavior becomes problematic for the faction to develop any further. Golding emphasizes the state of stress Ralph is in as the leader of a faction in this sentence: â€Å"And I work all day with nothing but Simon and you come back and don’t even notice the huts! †This passage in the novel is used to let the reader the reader there are lots of egoistic people in the world and that it is very hard to get those people to work. By mentioning the repetition â€Å"pig, pig, pig!†, the children make themselves seem as they only about their personal lives, rather than the life of the faction. | â€Å"Roger and Maurice came out of the forest. They were relieved from duty at the fire and had come down for a swim. Roger led the way straight through the castles, kicking them over, burying the flowers, scattering the chosen stones. Maurice followed, laughing, and added to the destruction. † (Golding 1954, Ch. 4, p. 60)| This analysis explores the literary features setting and characterization. In this passage of novel Golding makes it known that the quietness of the forest is disturbed by using verbs like â€Å"burying†, â€Å"kicking†, â€Å"scattering†. These words add to the destructive mood of the passage. Also, the setting is described as horrendous, menacing, and violent because one of the boys, Maurice in particular, laughs during this passage, meaning his carelessness towards the forest may result in shortage of necessary figures for their faction. Golding makes this scene stick out like a sore thumb because of the complete indiscretion that Roger and Maurice caused to the forest.

The Roles Of The Nervous System Biology Essay

The Roles Of The Nervous System Biology Essay The nervous system plays an important role in the smooth functioning of the body and is a complex network of cells which transmits signals through the body. The signals are transmitted by the brain, so if someone wanted to catch a ball their brain would transmit a signal to their hands to reach and catch the ball and are specialized in certain function. These cells communicate with each other through electrochemical waves. The neurons and glial cells are the important components of the nervous system. The two parts in which the nervous system is divided are the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. The spinal cord and brain form the central nervous system and neural tissues lying to the exterior of the central nervous system compose the peripheral nervous system. The main function of the nervous system is to keep a control over the systems of the body through these following processes. Sensory receptors of the nervous system are useful for the extraction of information from the environment and sending it to the central nervous system. The sensory neurons carry the information from sensory receptors to the central nervous system. The central nervous system collects information from the sensory receptors and carries out the processing. The task of transferring and interpreting the information is carried out by the interneurons. The peripheral nervous system sends information processed in the central nervous system to the glands and muscles of the body. An appropriate response is then activated by these glands or muscles. The motor neurons carry out the function of sending instructions to muscles or glands. The autonomous nervous system responds involuntarily. The involuntary processes of the body such as breathing, digestion, body temperature regulation and etc, are carried out by the autonomous nervous system. The autonomous nervous system is sub-divided into sympat hetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Coordination of body movements and homeostasis is carried out by the hind brain. Hind brain consists of different parts such as medulla, cerebellum and pons. The receptors are classified as exteroceptors, interoceptors and proprioceptors. The exteroceptors are used by the nervous system in smelling, listening, looking, touching, tasting and feeling. The signals associated with blood pressure, alimentary canal, bladder and osmotic pressure of blood plasma are received by the interoceptors. The movement and position of body parts is tracked by the proprioceptors. This kind of stimulus received by receptors is also one of the modes of classifying the receptors. Chemical receptors, mechanoreceptors and thermoreceptors are different types of receptors classified on the basis of the above-mentioned criteria. Thermoreceptors which consist of warm and cold fibers are excited by rising and falling temperatures respectively. The mechanoreceptors carry information about the mechanical stimulation to the central nervous system. The chemical receptors are sub-divided into olfactory, gustatory and glucose detectors, which are responsible for detecting smell, taste and glucose respectively. The glucose detectors are also responsible for providing information about the acid-base balance in the body Endocrine System The endocrine system is a collection of glands that secrete different hormones for the various functions and chemical reactions occurring within the body. The main function is to maintain a stable environment within the body or homeostasis. For example, maintaining the blood sugar levels according to changes occurring in the body is homeostasis. The other function of it is promoting the structural changes of the body which are the permanent changes occurring in the body over time such as height, development of sexual organs, and etc. There are 8 major glands that help in the functioning of this vital system. These major endocrine glands are as follows, Hypothalamus, Pituitary gland, Parathyroid gland, Thyroid gland, Adrenal glands, Pancreas, Ovaries and Testes. Hypothalamus, a collection of specialized cells that are located in the lower central part of the brain is called the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is the main link between the endocrine and the nervous systems. The nerve cells of the hypothalamus control the pituitary gland by stimulating or suppressing the hormone secretions. Pituitary Gland, the pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain just below the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland is the most important part in the endocrine system. The pituitary gland secretes hormones on the basis of the emotional and seasonal changes. The hypothalamus sends information that is sensed by the brain to pituitary triggering production hormones. The pituitary gland is divided into two parts: the anterior lobe and the posterior lobe. The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland regulated the activity of the thyroid, adrenals, and the reproductive glands. The anterior lobe also produces hormones such as Growth Hormone, to stimulate the growth of the bones and tissues. It also plays a role in the bodys absorption of nutrients and minerals. Prolactin, activate the production of milk in lactating mothers. Thyrotropin, stimulate the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones. Corticotropin, stimulate the adrenal glands to produce certain hormones. Endorphins, reduces the feeling of pain. The pituitary glands produces hormones that signal the reproductive organs to secrete sex hormones. The menstrual cycle and ovulation in women is also controlled by the pituitary gland. The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland produces anti-diuretic hormone that helps to control the water balance in the body. Oxytoxins that trigger the contractions of the uterus in a woman who is in labour is secreted by the posterior lobe. Thyroid Gland, the thyroid gland is situated in the front part of the lower neck that is shaped like a bow tie or butterfly. The production and secretions of the hormones of the thyroid glands are controlled by thyrotropin secreted by the pituitary gland. Thyroid produces thyroxine and triiodothyronine, that controls the rate at which the cells use up energy from food for production of energy. The thyroid hormones are very important as they help in growth of bones and the development and growth of the brain and nervous system in children. Over or under secretion of thyroid hormones lead to a number of thyroid problems in the body. Parathyroids, these are four tiny glands that are attached to the thyroid gland. They release the parathyroid hormone that helps in regulating the level of calcium in blood along with another hormone produced by thyroid known as calcitinin. Adrenal Glands, there are two triangular adrenal glands situated on each of the two kidneys. The adrenal gland is divided into two parts. The outer part called the adrenal cortex produces corticosteroids, which influence and regulate the salt and water levels. They are also helpful in the bodys response to stress, metabolism, immune system and the function and development of sexual organs. The inner part called the adrenal medulla, secretes catecholamine like epinephrine. This hormone is also called the adrenaline, which increases the blood pressure and heart rate when the body is under stress. Reproductive Glands or Gonads, the gonads are present in males and females and are the main organs producing sex hormones. In men, the gonads are related to testes. The testes are located in the scrotum and secrete androgens. The most important hormone for men testosterone is secreted from the testes. In women, ovaries are the gonads that are located in the pelvis region. They produce estrogen and progesterone hormones. Estrogen is involved during the sexual maturation of the girl, that is, puberty. Progesterone along with estrogen is involved in the regulation of menstruation cycle. These hormones are also involved during pregnancy. Pancreas, these glands are associated with the digestive system of the human body. They secrete digestive enzymes and two important hormones insulin and glucagon. These hormones work together to maintain the level of glucose in the blood. If these hormones are not secreted in the required levels, it leads to development of diabetes. Pineal, the pineal gland is located in the center of the brain. Melatonin is secreted by this gland that helps regulate the sleeping cycle of a person. Genetic System Genes are the basic units of hereditary transmission of characteristics. Heredity is the passing of traits to offspring (from its parent or ancestors). This is the process by which an offspring cell or organism acquires or becomes predisposed to the characteristics of its parent cell or organism. Through heredity, variations exhibited by individuals can accumulate and cause some species to evolve. In humans there are 23 pairs of Chromosomes which are located in the cell nucleus. Each person has 46 chromosomes, half from our mother and the other half from our father. The difference in the sex hormones is that Females have XX chromosomes while Males have XY chromosomes. This full set of genes in any organism is known as the Genome. No single gene determines a particular behaviour due to its complex traits involving multiple genes that are affected by a variety of other factors. But it share traits such as nurturing, cooperation, and altruism. These behavioural characteristics enhance t he survivorship of each species. Raquel Deering (2002) stated that a study performed by Harvard and MIT scientists involved the silencing of the gene responsible for coding of an important enzyme, CAMKII, in lab mice. Mutated mice were found to be unusually aggressive and daring. When placed in an open field, a mutated mouse would dawdle. However, when under the same conditions, a normal mouse would immediately run to the perimeter for cover. The atypical brazen attitude of a mutant mouse would make it much more susceptible to attack by prey in nature. Therefore, this trait is not frequently observed among mouse populations because it has been naturally selected against. A genetically influenced trait tends to be polygenic in characters involving many genes acting in concert to produce a certain response and also depends on the interaction of multiple gene sequences with environmental influences. These multiple gene systems are referred to as quantitative trait loci (QTL), reflecting their ability to quantitatively distribute phenotypic characteristics. The recently completed human genome sequence has greatly assisted the detection of QTLs and polymorphisms It must also be emphasized that genes do not directly dictate action, but rather are mediated by the proteins that they code for (Peter McGuffin, Brien Riley and Robert Plamin, 2001). It is necessary to examine not only the genes but also the assortment of proteins responsible for expression of particular traits (Joseph D. McInerney, 1999). It is anticipated that detailed analysis of the human genome will contribute to understandings about gene organization and transcription, and hence regulatory elements that control expression. By utilizing genomic and proteomic tools, the relationship between gene/protein and behaviour may be more accurately described. (Deering, 2002) Traditional research strategies in behavioural genetics include studies of twins and adoptees, techniques designed to sort biological from environmental influences. More recently, investigators have added the search for pieces of DNA associated with particular behaviours, an approach that has been most productive to date in identifying potential locations for genes associated with major mental illnesses such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Genetics and molecular biology have provided some significant insights into behaviours associated with inherited disorders. For example, we know that an extra chromosome 21 is associated with the mental retardation that accompanies Downs syndrome, although the processes that disrupt brain function are not yet clear. We also know the steps from gene to effect for a number of single-gene disorders that result in mental retardation, including phenylketonuria (PKU), a treatable metabolic disorder for which all newborns in the United States are t ested.(McInerney, 2008) The importance of biological perspective in achieving the goals of psychology The field of Psychology is the study of the mind, how it works, and its impact on thinking, behaviours, and our abilities to relate to our environment. Psychologists practice their craft based on different theoretical beliefs of behavioural causes but they all share similar primary goals which are Goals, Description, Explanation, Prediction, Change, Considerations and others have also recognised Observing and Improving as part of the primary goals. Biology has brought in brain and body structural understandings of typical and different types of people for understanding and brought about solutions in how to cure and treat the disorder. Researchers in biological psychology draw techniques and theories from related fields to identify the relationships between the activity of the nervous system and observable behaviour. Example high levels of testorones are associated with increased aggression (Dabbs, 1990 cited in Laura A. Freberg, 2006, pg.3). Biology in this case appears to be driving the behaviour and have helped in achieving goals in psychology through case studies, correlation studies, surveys, laboratory test and others to find the cause and solution for such problems. Researchers have also have brought about Imaging method to watch and identify the differences between how typical people and people with disorders/serial killers brain function by using Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) and etc . Theres also Recording method whereby it records electrical charges across their membrane using electrodes on the surface of the skull such as Single-Cell recordings and Magnet o encephalography (MEG). Theres also medicine prescribed to help control the fluids, hormones and etc in our body to maintain stability for future health reason. These methods are used to explain to the world how are persons behaviour is determined and what makes their thinking and character unique from others. Since the most important part of psychology is the brain, they must look for the help of biology, which is a sub-field that focuses on the brain movements. They also have found out the ancient histories of human bodies and how it has changed since then and also how will it change further in the further, also known as evolution, was all found out and brought to the worlds recognition and understanding through these biology. Its been stated that single cell organism appeared about 3.5 billion years ago and animals with very simple nerve nets developed about 700 million years ago. More complex animals with the first rudimentary brains, appeared about 250 million years ago and the first human brain probably appeared about seven million years ago (Calvin, 2004, cited in Freberg pg.54) and are using the samples of the ancient body parts to study, refer and relate to the present humans of biological factors and behaviours. Through many studies it has brought about cure and proper treatment plan for disorders or severe illness such as migraine, bipolar disorder, tumour, autism and etc also have predicted what may happen to a person in the futur e and are also still doing more research to study about learned and instinctual behaviours which are still are underlying questions in the world. Biology is the study of life. Without biology, we would have no idea about an organisms makeup or the most basic unit of life, a cell. It plays a very important role in our lives by teaching a person about body functions and how to take care of it. You have a better overall view when you know all areas of academic study. Likewise, you get to know the scientific method. Biology influences a person in many ways. Such as teaching why should we take care of the environment, why of our body, and a better overall view. As mentioned above environmental factors, body factors (genes and bodily functions), food all plays a role in determining and developing a persons behaviour and sometimes explanation is required to the world. Through these fundamentals brought in from biological perspective, it helped in achieving goals in psychology. (2599 words)

Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes (BACs) Features

Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes (BACs) Features Definition: Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes or BACs are plasmids (circular DNA molecules) constructed with the replication origin of E.coli F’ Factor. F’ is an incompatibility group involved in E. coli conjugative ability and chromosomal transfer, which can exist as an extra-chromosomal element. 1st developed as a large insert cloning system to facilitate the construction of DNA libraries to analyze genomic structure. Technology was developed to carry out genetic and functional studies of viruses (herpes virus especially). Since then BACs application have grown intensely and have benefited the research community in many fields, such as in genomic fingerprinting, sequencing of the human genome, in vaccine development and in vitro transgenesis,. Characteristic features of BAC vectors The original BAC vector, pBAC108L, is based on a mini-F plasmid, pMBO131 (Figure 1) which encodes genes essential for self-repli ­cation and regulates its copy number inside a cell. The unidirectional self-replicating genes are oriS and repE while parA and parB maintain copy number to one or two for each E. coli genome. Multiple cloning sites is present, flanked by â€Å"universal promot ­ers† T7 and SP6, all flanked by GC-rich restriction enzyme sites for insert excision.   Presence of cosN and loxP sites(cloned in by bacteriophage l terminase and P1 Cre recombinase, respectively) permits linearization of the plasmid for convenient restriction mapping. There is a chloramphenicol resistance gene for negative selection of non-transformed bacteria. Vector is 6900 bp in length and is capable of maintaining insert DNA in excess of 300 kilobases (kb). Other BAC Vectors There have been many modifications done to increase the ease-of-use as well as for use in specific systems and situations.   pBeloBAC11 2 and pBACe3.6 are modified BAC vectors based on pBAC108L and are commonly used as a basis for further modification. pBeloBAC11 The primary characteristic of this vector is the addition of a lacZ gene into the multiple cloning site 2 of pBAC108L. Plates supplemented with X-gal/IPTG, an intact lacZ gene encodes b-galactosidase which catalyses the supplemented substrate into a blue substance. Successful ligation of insert DNA into the vector inactivates lacZ, generating white colonies, indicating the presence of a successful vector-insert ligation. It is still a low-copy number plasmid due to presence of parA and parB. Size of vector is 7507 bp in length. pBACe3.6 This vector is based on pBAC108L but is more highly modified than pBeloBAC11. In order to overcome the issue of low plasmid copy numbers, the P1 replicon in F’ was deleted and a removable high copy number replicon originating from an inserted pUC19 was introduced.   This vector contains 2.7 kb pUClink stuffer fragment which is flanked by two sets of six restriction sites within a sacB region. Levansucrase, a product of sacB gene, which converts sucrose (sup ­plemented in the media) to levan, which is toxic to E. coli host cells. Hence, if the vector is re-ligated without an insert, the functional sacB produces levansucrase and the cells die before forming colonies. Successful ligation of an insert into the vector increases the dis ­tance from the promoter to the coding region of sacB, disrupting toxic gene expression in the presence of sucrose. In addition to this vectors, there are many specialized BAC vectors carrying a variety of different combinations of drug resistance genes. Besides, many different selection mechanisms and markers are available. Modifications of cloning sites (unique restriction endonuclease sites) are also common as per the addition of genes and promoters specific to different strains of bacteria. Development of BAC vector Advantages of BAC Vectors The large size of BACs help to minimize site of integration effects, a phenomenon which has been defined as endogenous sequences (such as gene coding regions and distal regulatory elements) to be disrupted, and to produce potentially undesirable phenotypes in gene cloning technology. Endogenous gene expression more accurately than other cloning systems. The human genome BACs consist of the full gene structure(which play very important role in gene regulation). Therefore the human genome BACs will ensure full mRNA processing and splicing when genes are transcribed, and produce the full complement of protein isoforms once mRNAs are translated. It can be transfected and expressed in mammalian cell lines even if transfection efficiency and copy numbers are low. Disadvantages of BAC vectors A construct containing a large genomic fragment is likely to contain non-related genes which may lead to indirect, non-specific gene expression and unanticipated changes in the cell phenotype. Recombinant BAC constructs can be time-consuming and labor-intensive. The large size BAC DNA constructs are more easily degraded and sheard during manipulation before transfection. Applications of BAC vectors BACs are useful for the construction of genomic libraries but their range of use is vast. It spans from basic science to economically rewarding industrial research, and fields as prosaic as animal husbandry. In genomic analyses, it helps in determining phylogenetic lineage det between species. Helps in study of horizontal gene transfer and since bacterial genes are usually clustered, the ability of BAC vectors to accommodate large inserts has allowed the study of entire bacterial pathways. By isolating DNA directly from soil or from marine environments, the â€Å"metagenomes† of those organisms which are either uncultureable or are termed viable but uncultureable can be cloned into BAC vectors and indirectly studied. In industrial research fields where BAC vectors are invaluable tools in cataloguing novel genomes is in the discovery of novel enzymes. Work has been done on identifying enzymes that are involved in biopolymer hydrolysis or even radioactive waste management. BAC vectors have been instrumen ­tal in studying large double stranded DNA viruses both from an academic point of view and as a tool to develop improved vaccines. In genomic research, high throughput determination of gains and losses of genetic material using high resolution BAC arrays and comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) have been developed into the new tools for translational research in solid tumors and neurodegenerative disorders. BAC technology is becoming the most upcoming method for genome sequencing. The technique uses an overlapping tailing part of large genomic fragments (150-200 kb) maintained within BACs. Every individual BAC is shotgun sequenced, where these large overlapping sequences of the BACs are assembled to produce the whole genome sequence. BACs have also been used in mammalian genome mapping, genomic imprinting, vaccine development, gene therapy and studies of the evolutionary history and functional dynamics of sex chromosomes have recently been possible using BAC libraries. YAC (yeast artificial chromosome) vectors Definition: Yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs) are plasmid shuttle vectors capable of replicating and being selected in common bacterial hosts such as Escherichia coli, as well as in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. They are of relatively small size (approximately 12 kb) and of circular form when they are amplified or manipulated in E. coli, but are rendered linear and of very large size(several hundreds of kilobases), when introduced as cloning vectors in yeast. Many different yeast artificial chromosomes exist as ongoing refinements of the initial pYAC3 and pYAC4 plasmids (Figure 1) constructed by Burke et al. (1987). Basic structural features of YACs were developed from the yeast centromere shuttle-plasmids (YCp) series. These are composed of double-stranded circular DNA sequences carrying the b-lactamase gene (bla) and the bacterial pMB1 origin of replication, thus conferring resistance to ampicillin and the ability to replicate in bacteria, respectively. YACs also contain the cloning site in the middle of the SUP4 suppressor of an ochre allele of a tyrosine transfer RNA gene; this enables restoration of the normal white color phenotype in otherwise red ade1 and/or ade2 nonsense mutants. Accordingly, in the insertional inactivation cloning process, the SUP4 gene is disrupted by the DNA insert, thus removing the suppression of the ade mutations and allowing their phenotypic expression as red color. They also include yeast ARS1 with its associated CEN4 DNAsequence, as well as the URA3 selectable marker. Biological Features of YACs The stability of YAC vectors in yeast per se is similar to that of natural chromosomes provided that all three structural elements (ARS, CEN and TEL) are present and functional, in addition, that the minimal required size is reached by the insertion of enough exogenous DNA. Indeed, several mutations are known to affect YAC stability and segregation together with natural chromosomes. Another important consideration is that faithful duplication of YACs is guaranteed only if other DNA sequences incompatible with ARS do not exist on the construct, particularly relevant when unknown DNA inserts are cloned in the YAC vector, as in the case for genomic libraries, in which there could be cryptic or otherwise unknown ARS-like sequences able to interfere with the ARS function. Construction of YACs Steps: Initially, purification of plasmid DNA is carried out. Two distinct digestions are performed: the first with BamHI that cuts twice adjacent to the two telomeric DNA sequences flanking the HIS3 gene, which therefore is excised from the plasmid and lost (Figure 2a). This first digestion generates a long linear fragment carrying telomeric sequences at each end. The second digestion consists of the opening of the cloning site within the SUP4 gene (Figure 2a). As a result of this second digestion, two linear fragments are produced as left and right arms of the future linear YAC (Figure 2b). Large DNA fragments with ends compatible to the cloning site, obtained from the desired genome source by digestion with an appropriate restriction endonuclease, are ligated with phosphatase treated YAC arms, to create a single yeast-transforming DNA molecule (Figure 2c). Primary transformants can be selected for complementation of the ura3 mutation in the host, and successively for complementation of the host trp1 mutation, thereby ensuring thepresence of both chromosomal arms. Transformant colonies containing the exogenous DNA insert within the SUP4 gene are detected by their red colour, due to the inactivation of the suppressor activity and the consequent accumulation of a red metabolic precursor in ade host cells. Applications of YACs Applications of YACs range from generating whole DNA libraries of the genomes of higher organisms to identifying essential mammalian chromosomal sequences necessary for the future construction of specialized mammalian artificial chromosomes (MACs). Helps in the study of regulation of gene expression by cis-acting, controlling DNA elements, that are present either upstream or downstream of large eukaryotic genes, after the transfer of these YACs from yeast to mammalian cells. YAC libraries has greatly advanced the analysis of genomes previously cloned in cosmid vectors. For example, YAC clones have been used as hybridization probes for the screening of cDNA libraries, thus simplifying the characterization of unidentified genes. Recent technological developments allow the transfer of YACs into mouse embryonal stem (ES) cells and the subsequent generation of transgenic mice. Investigators have begun to employ these artificial chromosomes for the in vivo study of multigenic loci in mammalian cells. Two process can be used to obtain a sequenced genome, or region of interest: 1. Physical Mapping. 2. Chromosome Walking. It allows for the detailed mapping of specific regions of the genome. With the help of this, whole human chromosomes have been examined, such as the X chromosome,generating the location of genetic markers for numerous genetic disorders and traits. Bibliography Smith, GA. Enquist, LW. 1999 A self-recombining bacterial artificial chromosome and its application for analysis of herpesvirus pathogenesis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 97; 4873-4878 Shizuya, H., Birren, B., Kim, UJ., Valeria, M., Slepak, T., Tachiiri, Y., Simon, M. 1992 Cloning and stable maintenance of 300-kilobase-pair fragments of human DNA in Escherichia coli using an F-factor-based vector. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 89; 879-8797 Fu, H., Dooner, HK. 2000 A gene-enriched BAC library for cloning large allele-specific fragments from Maize: Isolation of a 240-kb contig of the bronze region. Genome Res. 10; 866-873 Kim, UJ., Birren, BW., Slepak, T., Mancino, V., Boysen, C., Kang, HL., Simon, MI., Shizuya, H. 1996 Construction and characterization of a human bacterial artificial chromosome library. Genomics 34;213-218 Frengen, E., Weichenhan, D., Zhao, B., Osoegawa, K., van Geel, M., Jong, PJ. 1999 A modular, positive selection bacterial artificial chromosome vector with multiple cloning sites. Genomics 58; 250-253 Flotte, TR. 2000 Size does matter: overcoming the adeno-associated virus packaging limit. Respir. Res. 1; 16-18 Whitman, WB., Coleman, DC., Wiebe, WJ. 1998 Prokaryotes: the unseen majority. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 95; 6578-6583 Anderson, SI., Lopez-Corrales, NL., Gorick, B., Archibald, AL. 2000 A large-fragment porcine genomic library resource as a BAC vector. Mamm. Genome 11; 811-814 Heintz, N. 2001 BAC to the future: The use of BAC transgenic mice for neuroscience research. Nature Rev. Neur. 2; 861-870 Adler, H., Messerle, M., Koszinowski, UH. 2001 Virus reconstituted from infectious bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC)-cloned murine gammaerpesvirus 68 acquires wild-type properties in vivo only after excision of BAC vector sequences. J. Vir. 75; 5692-5696 Fischer CR (1969) Enzymology of the pigmented adenine requiring mutants of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces. Biochemical Biophysical Research Communication 34: 306–310. Cross SH, Allshire RC, McKay SJ, McGill NI and Cooke HJ (1989) Cloning of human telomeres by complementation in yeast. Nature 338:771–774. Jakobovits A, Moore AL, Green LL et al. (1993) Germ-line transmission and expression of a human-derived yeast artificial chromosome. Nature 362: 255–258.

Scottish Power :: Business and Management Studies

Scottish Power Using examples from the annual report, explain how Companies Act legislation and other regulations influence the information contained therein. It is important for a business to create and maintain accurate financial records and to know about the different users of financial information. Every business has to meet internal and external reporting requirements to show its financial health and to meet legal and other requirements. The reasons why businesses therefore keep accurate records are: Â · Assessing its financial position - businesses assess their financial position every year so they know the business is making efficient use of resources to provide the necessary financial return to achieve a profit or suffered a loss. Businesses can find out if it as the ability to generate cash to ensure continued trading and to make dividend payments. This can be done by using figures from the profit/loss account and balance sheet to work out appropriate ratio such as acid test ratio, which shows the liquidity of the business. Â · Compare its performance with previous years - this can show businesses its future prospects and predict future trends to show profit and loss. Good records provide the financial data that help you operate more efficiently, thus increasing the profitability of your enterprise. This is because accurate and complete records enable you, or your accountant, to identify all your business assets, liabilities, income and expenses which, when compared to appropriate industry averages, help you pinpoint the strong and weak phases of your business operations over the years. The annual reports that I am going to use for this piece of work are from a well-established company Scottish Power. The predictable view of a company annual report and set of accounts is a glossy booklet, generally A4 size; there is an annual report in the appendices. The annual report is illustrated with photographs of the company’s directors and some of it activities, containing a chairman’s statement and other promotional or publicity material and extra material by a closely printed section carrying out complex and detailed financial data. The annual reports are for the year ending March 2004. Companies Act 1989 is to amend the law relating to company accounts; to make new provision with respect to the persons entitled for appointment as company auditors; to amend the Companies Act 1985 and certain other enactments with respect to investigations and powers to obtain information and to confer new powers exercisable to assist overseas regulatory authorities; to make new provision with respect to the registration of company charges and otherwise to amend the law relating to companies.[1] The relevant rules are in material form in the Companies Acts 1985 and

Comparing Moby Dick, Ahabs Wife and Diary :: Comparison Compare Contrast Essays

A Comparison of Moby Dick, Ahab's Wife and Diary A story is composed of many parts, some necessary and some to add meaning. What are necessary are characters, a setting, a conflict, and a resolution. To add meaning an author may include complicated histories to their characters' lives, underlying themes, value within the setting, and surprising twists within the conflicts and resolutions. Because this outline is generally used throughout fictional stories, many, even if written in completely different genres and time periods, are alike and can be compared. This is because through technological and social changes, themes such as man vs. man, man vs. himself, man vs. nature, and man vs. society remain constant. Newer authors such as Chuck Palahniuk are considered post modern; he must create art in a world where everything that could possibly be original has already been created. Therefore he is expected to take what has been done and make it better. Thus, he combines themes from Moby Dick and Ahab's Wife to make Diary. Herman Melvill e wrote Moby Dick in the nineteenth century to narrate a story of a man who battles the world in search of himself. It is hinted that he left a wife behind and selfishly sacrifices his fellow humans because he can only see his one goal: capturing the white whale. Sena Jeter Naslund took the idea that Ahab had a wife and created Ahab's Wife (1999), which gives birth to many characters and similar themes. Most of this novel details Una's life before she met Ahab, but also includes her absent husband a great deal and illustrated their relationship while he is present as well as after he leaves. In both novels the inner turmoil of man dominates, creating similar backgrounds, lives, and goals for both Ahab and his wife Una. Chuck Palahniuk, a nouveaux shock fiction writer, also writes with man vs. himself (sometimes literally), man vs. society, and man vs. nature permeated throughout in order to create his novels. By combining character traits, settings, conflicts, and resolutions, one c an easily understand how, though the world has evolved, the underlying themes of fiction have not. Within the plots of the three novels there are many similarities. Diary is a fictional story written as a series of diary entries. Misty is keeping this diary as suggested by her comatose husband's mother; "It's what sailors and their wives used to do .

Philippines and International Division

Building an organization In 1933, TTC selected Tony Kitchner to start international operations. He asked for the resources and autonomy to create an International Division. 1. The new division needed to be separate from Jollibee’s Philippine side, with a different identity and capabilities. 2. He agreed with TTC that attracting partners with good connections in their markets should be a priority. 3. To project an image of a world-class company and make it to look and act like a multinational, not like a local chain. 4. Kitchner began recruiting experienced internationalists from inside and outside Jollibee.Adding external professionals for marketing, finance, quality control, and product development helped keep innovative ideas churning. Strategic Thrust Tony Kitchner has a definite objective that increase the pace of international expansion with the objective of making Jollibee one of the world’s top ten fast food brands by 2000. Two main themes formulated: 1. Targetin g expats: the hundreds of thousands of expatriate Filipinos working in the Middle East, Hong Kong, Guam, and other Asian territories as a latent market for Jollibee and as a good initial base to support entry.But after opening stores, he found that this market was limited. 2. Planting the flag: the expectation was that by expanding the number of stores, the franchise could build brand awareness which in turn would positively impact sales. The problem is only after achieving a certain level of sales could most franchisees afford the advertising and promotion. The other challenge was that rapid expansion led to resource constraints. I think he entered new markets without proper market. Operational management Market entry: Kitvhner handed responsibility for the opening to one of the division’s Franchise Services Managers(FSM).One responsibility in which a franchisee was deeply involved was the key first store. A design manager in the International Division provided support. Over sight and continuing support As operations stabilized and the store manager started to see patterns in sales and operational needs, FSMs allowed stores to report the same data weekly and provide a monthly summary. If FSM saw a decline in sales and managers could not come up with solutions themselves, FSM should coach them to help them generate answers. This open partnership fit with TTC’s view of franchise relations.But his strategy was not focused. CONTROL is an extremely important issue for success and TK’s division was out of control. International vs. domestic practice After numerous market entry battles, a number of elements of Jollibee’s Philippine business model needed to be modified overseas. They decided that they needed to reposition ourselves to target a more up-market clientele. In particular, they disliked the Philippine store design. So Kitchner developed three new store decors, in changed the red background to orange, and added the slogan.Kitchner and his staff made numerous other changes to Jollibee’s Philippine business operating model. Customizing for local tastes Such changes provoked grumbling from many in the large domestic business, and nothing triggered more controversy than the experiment with menu items. Managers in the international division believed that menus should be adjusted to local preferences. Since other menu items were seldom removed, these additions generally increased the size of menus abroad. It always came at the cost of some operating efficiency and operating control.So R&D staff on the Philippine side objected strenuously. Overall, the international division’s modification of menus and products caused considerable tension with the Philippine side of Jollibee. I think Kichner overemphasized the differences in the overseas markets. He would have been wise to incorporate the Jollibee company philosophy into his division to foster the camaraderie that was sorely lacking. The division that arose between the domestic and the international side demonstrate a lack of communication. And launching the International Division should at a more sedate pace.

Assess the Significance of the Role of Individuals in Reducing Racial Discrimination in the Period 1877-1981

Assess the significance of the role of individuals in reducing racial discrimination in the period 1877-1981. The post-civil war era of American history could be argued as one with great promise for African Americans. With the North winning the Civil War and Lincoln granting the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, surely the seeds had been sown for equality for all in America; blacks and whites included?Despite the foundations having been laid for equality, it may not be surprising that only small progress was made when Lincoln- the â€Å"saviour† of Blacks- had little interest in abolishing slavery in the first place; â€Å"if I could save the Union without freeing any slave, I would do it†. However, it cannot be disputed that, whatever his intentions had been, Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation did provide just a glimpse of hope for African Americans; De Jure, the African Americans throughout America had freedom and were able to leave the slavery of Southern plantatio n owners.Why is it then, that De Facto, the years following the Civil War failed to provide this ‘new hope' for Blacks and that racism & discrimination continued for many years to come? The idea of Blacks developing the mind set they needed in order to fight for their freedom can be categorised as their ‘developing consciousness'. Throughout the 19th and 20th century, it was evident that Blacks had begun to realise that they too had rights and were entitled to the same as the Whites.Through the work of organisations such as the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People) and the Harlem Renaissance as well as individuals such as William Edward Burghardt (W. E. B) Du Bois; Blacks in American began developing their identity as a group and using this to fight back against the oppression of Whites. Du Bois was known as a vocal critic of Booker T Washington, being an educated Black- graduating from Fisk University in 1885 and studying history at Harvard University- he became the first African-American to receive a Ph.D. From Harvard. In order to develop Black Consciousness, Du Bois joined forces with the like minded activists of the NAACP. The NAACP's main focal points were: The abolition of segregation; equal voting rights; educational opportunities for black people; the enforcement of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments. Despite the main focuses of the NAACPs campaigns, it could be argued that the main thing they did for the progress of Black Equality was the uniting of Blacks under one force; by 1918 there were around 43,994 members in the NAACP.This gathering of Blacks under one organisation cannot be ignored, for the first time the African-Americans of America were joining together in order to fight for their freedom. One key event which argues against the idea that individuals were significant in reducing racial discrimination is that of WWI; argued by Sander's- â€Å"The First World War generated jobs and gave blacks s oldiers a glimpse of greater equality†. The treatment of Blacks abroad- particularly France- showed the African-Americans that the treatment they were receiving at home was unfair and that they were indeed in a situation which needed to change.It is a hard task indeed to decide whether or Black Consciousness increased due to the work solely of individuals such as Du Bois, organisations like the NAACP or events like WWI. Many would argue that it was not a single one of these factors which led to the increase of Black's realisation of potential. One argument however is that surely without individuals behind the organisations, the work and impact of the organisation is nothing? Individuals are able to lead, organise and even inspire; something that events and organisations are unable to do.The process of increased black nationalism is certainly one which cannot be overlooked; indeed it may not have achieved solid changes in law, and some go as far to say that it may have even hin dered the advancement of Black Civil Rights. Despite this one could argue that the development of black nationalism catalysed the civil rights movement for many African Americans; installing a sense of pride inside the hearts of many which was drastically needed at the time. Before trying to pin any credible progress on the black nationalism movement it is first important to attempt to define ‘Black Nationalism'.A simple definition of it would be that it was an ideology which stresses the desire for separatism of the black race; â€Å"unity as a people, pride in African heritage, the creation of autonomous institutions and the search for a territory to build a nation† (Cone, 1991, 122). However the ideology of black nationalists varies greatly between individuals; a perfect example of this is Malcolm X and Martin Luther King. The two vary drastically between their methods in raising black nationalism.The methods and effectiveness of Malcolm X's campaign for the improved lives of black Americans are up for questioning by many. Indeed his tactics were more radicalised than his non-violent counterpart Dr King: Malcolm X even stated in Washington, 1964 that â€Å"I'm here to remind the white man of the alternative to Dr King†. This statement could be seen to sum up the purpose of Malcolm X; due to the lack of credible change attached to him, one has to question whether his purpose was merely just to show what could happen (increased radicalisation and violence) if the demands of Dr King were not met.This lack of credible, positive actions and change by Malcolm X and his current organisation the Nation Of Islam is an idea which can be- and has been- argued in depth. One could argue that, in terms of De Jure, Malcolm X did not achieve anything significant and indeed many considered him to be irresponsible and negative; Thurgood Marshall even went as far as to say that the NOI was â€Å"run by a bunch of thugs†. Despite this, De Facto, one cannot simply ignore the fact that Malcolm X did indeed draw early attention to the awful conditions in the ghettos and according to the FBI, he was â€Å"The most successful recruiter for the Black Muslims†.This can be credited to Malcolm X being a Zeitgeist; he was able to tap into the spirit of the time and the feelings of the people, using this to draw the huge amounts of support he did for the Nation of Islam. Indeed it may be seen that a radical, passionate individual like Malcolm X was needed at that specific time for the black nationalism movement; it cannot be ignored that Martin Luther King was not at his most successful stage and the fire of black civil rights and nationalism which had been burning brightly was indeed beginning to burn dimmer or some might even say had gone out at the time.After looking at the impact in which individuals had on the civil rights movement and the contrast of events, one can still come back to the fundamentals of the debate; without a n individual to start an organisation or instigate an event surely no progress at all would have been made? If one is able to look at the larger picture of the progress made in reducing racial discrimination in the years Assess the Significance of the Role of Individuals in Reducing Racial Discrimination in the Period 1877-1981 Assess the significance of the role of individuals in reducing racial discrimination in the period 1877-1981. The post-civil war era of American history could be argued as one with great promise for African Americans. With the North winning the Civil War and Lincoln granting the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, surely the seeds had been sown for equality for all in America; blacks and whites included?Despite the foundations having been laid for equality, it may not be surprising that only small progress was made when Lincoln- the â€Å"saviour† of Blacks- had little interest in abolishing slavery in the first place; â€Å"if I could save the Union without freeing any slave, I would do it†. However, it cannot be disputed that, whatever his intentions had been, Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation did provide just a glimpse of hope for African Americans; De Jure, the African Americans throughout America had freedom and were able to leave the slavery of Southern plantatio n owners.Why is it then, that De Facto, the years following the Civil War failed to provide this ‘new hope' for Blacks and that racism & discrimination continued for many years to come? The idea of Blacks developing the mind set they needed in order to fight for their freedom can be categorised as their ‘developing consciousness'. Throughout the 19th and 20th century, it was evident that Blacks had begun to realise that they too had rights and were entitled to the same as the Whites.Through the work of organisations such as the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People) and the Harlem Renaissance as well as individuals such as William Edward Burghardt (W. E. B) Du Bois; Blacks in American began developing their identity as a group and using this to fight back against the oppression of Whites. Du Bois was known as a vocal critic of Booker T Washington, being an educated Black- graduating from Fisk University in 1885 and studying history at Harvard University- he became the first African-American to receive a Ph.D. From Harvard. In order to develop Black Consciousness, Du Bois joined forces with the like minded activists of the NAACP. The NAACP's main focal points were: The abolition of segregation; equal voting rights; educational opportunities for black people; the enforcement of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments. Despite the main focuses of the NAACPs campaigns, it could be argued that the main thing they did for the progress of Black Equality was the uniting of Blacks under one force; by 1918 there were around 43,994 members in the NAACP.This gathering of Blacks under one organisation cannot be ignored, for the first time the African-Americans of America were joining together in order to fight for their freedom. One key event which argues against the idea that individuals were significant in reducing racial discrimination is that of WWI; argued by Sander's- â€Å"The First World War generated jobs and gave blacks s oldiers a glimpse of greater equality†. The treatment of Blacks abroad- particularly France- showed the African-Americans that the treatment they were receiving at home was unfair and that they were indeed in a situation which needed to change.It is a hard task indeed to decide whether or Black Consciousness increased due to the work solely of individuals such as Du Bois, organisations like the NAACP or events like WWI. Many would argue that it was not a single one of these factors which led to the increase of Black's realisation of potential. One argument however is that surely without individuals behind the organisations, the work and impact of the organisation is nothing? Individuals are able to lead, organise and even inspire; something that events and organisations are unable to do.The process of increased black nationalism is certainly one which cannot be overlooked; indeed it may not have achieved solid changes in law, and some go as far to say that it may have even hin dered the advancement of Black Civil Rights. Despite this one could argue that the development of black nationalism catalysed the civil rights movement for many African Americans; installing a sense of pride inside the hearts of many which was drastically needed at the time. Before trying to pin any credible progress on the black nationalism movement it is first important to attempt to define ‘Black Nationalism'.A simple definition of it would be that it was an ideology which stresses the desire for separatism of the black race; â€Å"unity as a people, pride in African heritage, the creation of autonomous institutions and the search for a territory to build a nation† (Cone, 1991, 122). However the ideology of black nationalists varies greatly between individuals; a perfect example of this is Malcolm X and Martin Luther King. The two vary drastically between their methods in raising black nationalism.The methods and effectiveness of Malcolm X's campaign for the improved lives of black Americans are up for questioning by many. Indeed his tactics were more radicalised than his non-violent counterpart Dr King: Malcolm X even stated in Washington, 1964 that â€Å"I'm here to remind the white man of the alternative to Dr King†. This statement could be seen to sum up the purpose of Malcolm X; due to the lack of credible change attached to him, one has to question whether his purpose was merely just to show what could happen (increased radicalisation and violence) if the demands of Dr King were not met.This lack of credible, positive actions and change by Malcolm X and his current organisation the Nation Of Islam is an idea which can be- and has been- argued in depth. One could argue that, in terms of De Jure, Malcolm X did not achieve anything significant and indeed many considered him to be irresponsible and negative; Thurgood Marshall even went as far as to say that the NOI was â€Å"run by a bunch of thugs†. Despite this, De Facto, one cannot simply ignore the fact that Malcolm X did indeed draw early attention to the awful conditions in the ghettos and according to the FBI, he was â€Å"The most successful recruiter for the Black Muslims†.This can be credited to Malcolm X being a Zeitgeist; he was able to tap into the spirit of the time and the feelings of the people, using this to draw the huge amounts of support he did for the Nation of Islam. Indeed it may be seen that a radical, passionate individual like Malcolm X was needed at that specific time for the black nationalism movement; it cannot be ignored that Martin Luther King was not at his most successful stage and the fire of black civil rights and nationalism which had been burning brightly was indeed beginning to burn dimmer or some might even say had gone out at the time.After looking at the impact in which individuals had on the civil rights movement and the contrast of events, one can still come back to the fundamentals of the debate; without a n individual to start an organisation or instigate an event surely no progress at all would have been made? If one is able to look at the larger picture of the progress made in reducing racial discrimination in the years